Part 18

Inman (Thomas), B.A., physician and archæologist, b. 1820. Educated at London University, he settled at Liverpool, being connected with the well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by his work on Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he deals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other nations. It was first published in '69. A second edition appeared in '73. He also wrote Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed and Explained, '69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitled Ancient Faiths and Modern, published at New York '76. Dr. Inman was for some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His professional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several medical works, including two volumes on the Preservation and Restoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.

Iron (Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, q.v.

Isnard (Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work on Spiritualism and Materialism, 1879.

Isnard (Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, "The Law, behold my God. I know no other." He voted for the death of the King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council of Five Hundred. Died 1830.

Isoard (Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval officer in '48 but arrested as socialist in '49. In '70 he was made sous-prefet of Cambrai and wrote Guerre aux Jésuites.

Isoard Delisle (Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales, French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the Congregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769 he published the Philosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to be irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in prison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription was opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He went to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published many works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.

Jacob (Andre Alexandre). See Erdan (A.)

Jacobson (Augustus), American, author of Why I do not Believe, Chicago 1881, and The Bible Inquirer.

"Jacobus (Dom)" Pseudonym of Potvin (Charles) q.v.

Jacoby (Leopold) German author of The Idea of Development. 2 vols. Berlin 1874-76.

Jacolliot (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought up to the law, in '43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused attention by his work, The Bible in India, '70. He also has written on Genesis of Humanity, '76. The Religions Legislators, Moses, Manu and Muhammad, '80, and The Natural and Social History of Humanity, '84, and several works of travel.

Jantet (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons, b. the first in 1826, the second in '28, have published together able Aperçus Philosophiques on Rènan's Life of Jesus, '64, and Doctrine Medicale Matérialiste, 1866.

Jaucourt (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm, b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, furnished the Encyclopédie with many articles, and conducted the Bibliothèque Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.

Jefferies (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his descriptions of nature in The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographical Story of My Heart (1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.

Jefferson (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April 1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769-75. In 1774 he published his Summary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted and reported to Congress the "Declaration of Independence" which was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785-89, secretary of state from 1789-93, vice-president 1791-1801 and third president of the United States 1801-9. In '19 he founded the University of Virginia, of which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his Dictionary of Biography says "In religion he was what is denominated a freethinker." He spoke in old age of "the hocus-pocus phantom of God, which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads." See his life by J. Parton.

Johnson (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman, b. Bryant's Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington, studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry '12. Fought with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress from 1807-19, and from '29-37; a United States Senator from '19-29, and Vice-President of the United States, '37-40. Is remembered by his report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.

Johnson (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10 Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a "Free Church" at Lynn in '53. He never attached himself to any denomination, although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians and Universalists. About '46 he published, in conjunction with S. Longfellow, brother of the poet, Hymns of the Spirit, Oriental Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume on India appeared in '72, China '77, and Persia '84. Died Andover, 19 Feb. 1882.

Jones (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin, 25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover, who became his godfather. Called to the bar in '44 in the following year he joined the Chartist movement, editing the People's Paper, Notes to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In '48 he was tried for making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years' imprisonment, during which he wrote Beldagon Church and other poems. He stood for Halifax in '47, and Nottingham in '53 and '57, without success. He was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died 26 Jan. 1869.

Jones (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French Revolution he became a leading member of the London Corresponding Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. On 26 Dec. '11 he was again convicted for "a seditious and blasphemous libel." He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers Town, 4 April, 1838.

Jones (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork, Ireland, in March, 1811. In '27 he came over to Manchester, and in '32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became "a social missionary," and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on "The Influence of Christianity" with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at Manchester, in '39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes between masters and men. He contributed to the New Moral World, Spirit of the Age, Glasgow Sentinel, Leeds Express, North British Daily Mail, Newcastle Chronicle, and Co-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May, 1886, leaving behind a Life of Robert Owen.

Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count Falkenstein, saw d'Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents, regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy, and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says "a mighty reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him, its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about, hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any inn or hut;--flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad and based or dangerously armed. 'Disappear I say.' A most prompt, severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich; bent to imitate him with profit. 'Very clever indeed' says Friedrich, 'but has the fault (a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the second step without having taken the first.'" Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.

Jouy (Victor Joseph Etienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles 1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple, he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.

Julianus (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17 Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent, tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361--26 June, 363), comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.

Junghuhn (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld, Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz, whence he escaped to Algiers. In '34 he joined the Dutch Army in the Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making a botanical and geological survey. In '54 he published his Licht en Schaduwbeelden uit de binnenlanden van Java (Light and Shadow pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God, religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from the pious, but also much agreement among freethinkers, and led to the establishment of De Dageraad (The Daybreak,) the organ of the Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and died 21 April, '64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His Light and Shadow pictures have been several times reprinted.

Kalisch (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania, 16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he studied under Vatke and others. Early in '49 he came to England as a political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild family. His critical Commentary on the Pentateuch commenced with a volume on Exodus, '55, Genesis '58, Leviticus in two vols. in '67 and '72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school of Wellhausen. He published Bible Studies on Balaam and Jonah '77, and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned work entitled Path and Goal, '80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott's series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.

Kames (Lord). See Home (Henry).

Kant (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22 April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he published his great work, The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied all knowledge of the "Thing itself," and overthrew the dogmatism of earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal censorship for his Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.

Kapila. One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.

Karneades. See Carneades.

Keeler (Bronson C.) American author of an able Short History of the Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of the canon, published at Chicago 1881.

Keim (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart, 17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professor of theology at Zürich. Is chiefly known by his History of Jesus of Nazara ('67-'72). He also wrote a striking work on Primitive Christianity ('78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.

Keith (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685, was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died Berlin, 25 May, 1778.

Keith (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie, Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the Empress Elizabeth. In 1747 he took service with Frederick the Great as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him "a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the more he knows him, likes him the better." From their correspondence it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After brilliant exploits in the seven years' war at Prague, Rossbach, and Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.

Kenrick (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts, about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first poetic production was a volume of Epistles, Philosophical and Moral (1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In 1775 he commenced the London Review, and the following year attacked Soame Jenyns's work on Christianity. He translated some of the works of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.

Kerr (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western Pennsylvania, 15 March 1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature '56, and elected to Congress in '74 and endeavoured to revise the tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia, 19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.

Ket, Kett, or Knight (Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe says he was burnt for "divers detestable opinions against Christ our Saviour."

Khayyam (Omar) or Umar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests, and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, "I myself am Heaven and Hell."

Kielland (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b. Stavanger, 18 Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His stories, Workpeople, Skipper Worse, Poison, and Snow exhibit his bold opinions.

Kleanthes. See Cleanthes.

Klinger (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19 Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him "a true apostle of the Gospel of nature." Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.

Kneeland (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774, became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New Testament, 1823, The Deist (2 Vols.), '22, edited the Olive Branch and the Christian Inquirer. He wrote The Fourth Epistle of Peter, '29, and a Review of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series of lectures delivered in New York in '29. In that year he removed to Boston, and in April '31 commenced the Boston Investigator, the oldest Freethought journal. In '33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy for saying that he "did not believe in the God which Universalists did." He was sentenced 21 Jan. '34, to two months' imprisonment and fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts of Appeal in '36, and he received two months' imprisonment. Kneeland was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and soon after left the Boston Investigator in the hands of P. Mendum and Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August, 1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary, was published in two volumes in 1852.

Knoblauch (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.

Knowlton (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton, Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published the Fruits of Philosophy, for which he was imprisoned in '32. He was a frequent correspondent of the Boston Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About '29 he published The Elements of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.

Knutzen (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who were called "Gewissener," from their acknowledging no other authority but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also wrote two dialogues.

Koerbagh (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published A Flower Garden of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled to Culemborg. There he translated a book De Trinitate, and began a work entitled A Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy, heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.

Kolb (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14 Sept. 1808, author of an able History of Culture, 1869-70. Died at Munich 15 May, 1884.

Koornhert (Theodore). See Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)

Korn (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague, 26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of "F. Nork," he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with profit. A list is given in Fuerst's Bibliotheca Judaica. We mention Christmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, '36; Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, '36; The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth, '37; The Gods of the Syrians, '42; Biblical Mythology of the Old and New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, '42-'43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia, 16 Oct. 1850.

Krause (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig 22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to the Vossische Zeitung and Gartenlaube. In '63 he published, under the pen-name of "Carus Sterne," a work on The Natural History of Ghosts, and in '76 a work on Growth and Decay, a history of evolution. In '77 he established with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger, the monthly magazine Kosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This he conducted till '82. In Kosmos appeared the germ of his little book on Erasmus Darwin, '79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary notice. As "Carus Sterne" he has also written essays entitled Prattle from Paradise, The Crown of Creation, '84, and an illustrated work in parts on Ancient and Modern Ideas of the World, '87, etc.

Krekel (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March, 1815. Went with parents to America in '32 and settled in Missouri. In '42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county attorney. In '52 he was elected to the Missouri State Legislature. He served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of the constitutional convention of '65 and signed the ordinance of emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, '65. A pronounced Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died at Kansas 14 July, 1888.

Krekel (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana 13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her services to the Freethought platform.

Kropotkin (Petr Aleksyeevich) Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow 9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In '71 he went to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped '76 and came to England. In '79 he founded at Geneva, Le Révolté was expelled. Accused in France in '83 of complicity in the outrage at Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in '86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated Herbert Spencer's "Biology" into Russian, died in Siberia in the autumn of 1886.

Laas (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has written three volumes on Idealism and Positivism, 1879-'84, and also on Kant's Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg, where he died 25 July, 1885.