Part 30

=255. Irrigation Systems of the Egyptians.= In a great many parts of western United States where little rain falls, how do farmers and gardeners get water for their plants? "Irrigation" is the word that tells the story. The Egyptians taught the people of the world how to save water for irrigation by building great dams in the Nile. This water they carried in ditches throughout the land so that the thirsty crops would have the moisture they needed for growing.

[Sidenote: =The tombs of the kings=]

=256. Egypt Ruled by Kings.= For several thousand years Egypt was ruled by kings. The most famous of these rulers was a great warrior called Rameses II. He built great tombs or monuments called "pyramids." These were built out of huge blocks of stone much larger than any now used in buildings. For many years he had the common man or the slave doing this work for him.

The Bible tells us about Moses, who became a great leader among the Israelites. The Israelites were slaves to the kings of Egypt. Moses led them forth from Egypt to escape the hard tasks of one of their kings.

=257. What the Egyptians Gave to Other Nations.= Among the Egyptians there were great students for that early time. A few men among them studied the stars and learned about the movements of the heavenly bodies. In arithmetic they could count up to millions. They could weave cloth, cut jewels, and make most beautiful objects out of glass.

[Sidenote: =Egyptian hieroglyphics=]

But above all the Egyptians could write. Not as we do, of course, but they used letters, not rude pictures as seen in most early writings. Scholars have named the characters used in writing by Egyptians and other ancient peoples "hieroglyphics."

=258. Babylon and Nineveh.= Asia, too, had early peoples. Perhaps some of them were older than the Egyptians. There lived in southwestern Asia, in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, two mighty nations whose chief cities were Babylon and Nineveh.

[Sidenote: =The hanging gardens of Babylon=]

Babylon on the Euphrates was a splendid city. It had great walls to protect it against enemy nations. Its hanging gardens were the wonders of the ancient world.

To the north, on the banks of the Tigris, lay the great city of Nineveh. The fierce kings of Nineveh conquered many nations and forced them to pay tribute.

In this region, nature furnished the kings no building stone such as was found in Egypt. But they made their homes and their palaces out of sun-dried brick. This soft material, as the years rolled on, fell into decay, and now men can find the ruins of these wonderful cities only by digging where they lay.

[Sidenote: =How the Babylonians wrote=]

The Babylonians did their writing upon bricks or clay tablets before they dried them. They had their own way of writing, using a sharp piece of metal for making wedged-shaped lines instead of letters. They used a sort of picture-writing too, making rude cuts of birds, animals, and man. On these clay tablets, buried centuries ago, we may read the stories of what they did and how they lived.

=259. How Jews and Phoenicians Helped Mankind.= Along the eastern end of the Mediterranean lies Palestine, which was conquered by the Jews early in their history, and became their home. The Jews as a people interest us because they have given us our religious ideas. They have never been a warlike nation, but at times they could fight. David was one of their great kings, and Solomon another.

During long years this people has held faithful and true to the idea of one God. Although the Jews were driven from Palestine and scattered among the nations of the world they have never given up their religion. They have always looked forward to the time when they might return to Jerusalem and set up a Jewish nation once more. As a result of the World War that time seems to have come.

[Sidenote: =Phoenicians helped to advance learning=]

The Phoenicians were akin to the Jews. They lived near the Jews on the Mediterranean and were a sea-going people, the traders of that early time. In their ships, driven by oar and sail, they braved the dangers of the Atlantic and reached Spain and England. To these people must be given the credit of carrying to the Greeks and Romans much of the learning of Egypt and Asia. To the Phoenicians also belongs the honor and fame of inventing an alphabet much like the one we have to-day, although with fewer letters.

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL

=The Leading Facts.= _1._ The first settlers in America came from old and well-established countries in Europe. _2._ Their ways of living were very different from ours. _3._ The classes of people were very different from those we have. _4._ Egypt the oldest nation. _5._ What the Nile does for Egypt. _6._ What Egypt taught the world. _7._ Babylon and Nineveh, the early cities of Asia. _8._ How they differed from Egypt. _9._ How Egypt, Babylon, and Nineveh recorded their deeds. _10._ What the Jews were noted for. _11._ Who were great among them? _12._ How the World War has changed the hope of some Jews. _13._ The Phoenicians were celebrated for carrying trade and learning. _14._ They also invented the alphabet.

=Study Questions.= _1._ Name the different classes of people in Europe. _2._ What would have happened if a great lord had carried his people to America in an early day? _3._ Make a list of useful things that the Egyptians knew. _4._ How do you imagine we know about the ancient cities of Babylon and Nineveh? _5._ Why did they use brick? _6._ Why is it better to use letters than pictures in writing?

=Suggested Readings.= Dopp, _The Tree Dwellers_; _The Early Cave-men_; _The Later Cave-men_; _The Early Sea People_; _Stories of Ancient Peoples_; Ragozin, _A History of the World_, Vol. I. Earliest Peoples; Retold from _St. Nicholas_, Stories of the Ancient World, 3-52, 69-77, 92-124; Mace-Tanner, _Old Europe and Young America_, 14-24.

GREECE, THE LAND OF ART AND FREEDOM

=260. Greece, a Beautiful Land.= Among the countries of the ancient world Greece was the one bright spot where men had the right to think and act for themselves.

[Sidenote: =The geography of Greece=]

Greece is a small peninsula in southeastern Europe cut up by many deep gulfs and bays and crossed by rugged mountains. The colors of its landscape have been thus described: "Against a deep blue sky, its bold hills and mountains, often powdered with snow, stand out in clear outline, and its fertile valleys please the eye with their green vineyards and groves of silver-gray olive trees."

Greece is kissed by gentle winds of the Mediterranean Sea and has the warm, balmy climate that all the shores of this inland ocean have.

[Sidenote: =Greek colonies=]

=261. The Greeks of the Olden Times.= The Greeks were bold people and many of them went on long voyages in their small vessels. These voyages were not for plunder, but for trade and for planting colonies. Under the lead of some brave Greek they made their way to France, to Italy, to Africa, to Asia Minor, and to the shores of the Black Sea. Some of these colonies became rich and prospered greatly. There were so many Greeks living in southern Italy that it was called "Greater Greece." In the island of Sicily stood the largest and most splendidly built city in Greater Greece, called Syracuse.

[Sidenote: =An old Greek myth=]

=262. The Brave Deeds of Ancient Greek Heroes.= The story of the Greek heroes was the invention of her early poets. The most famous of these heroes was Hercules, the most powerful man that ever lived, according to story. He performed twelve mighty labors, among them killing with his hands a big lion, and a terrible water serpent or snake which bore many heads.

[Sidenote: =The blind singer of Greece=]

=263. The Favorite Story of the Greeks.= The favorite tale of the old Greeks was the story of the capture of Troy. It was written by one of their poets, the blind Homer. He told how Paris, son of the king of Troy, stole Helen, the wife of the king of a Greek city called Sparta. Helen was said to be the most beautiful woman in the ancient world.

The king of Sparta called upon all Greeks for help. From every city of Greece came bold warriors. The Trojans were great fighters, too. For nine years war was waged under the walls of Troy. The Greek leaders quarreled among themselves and the Trojans drove them to their ships. This united the Greeks, and their great leader Achilles, clad in new armor made for him by the god Vulcan, rushed forth and slew Hector, leader of the Trojans. There was great sorrow among the people of Troy, but they fought on.

[Sidenote: =The fall of Troy=]

Now Ulysses, another Greek of great fame, had built a huge wooden horse. The Greeks left the horse standing near the walls of Troy. Then they pretended to sail home. The Trojans drew the great wooden beast within the walls of the city. It was full of Greek warriors. They climbed out at dead of night and opened the gates. The Greeks rushed in, slew the Trojans, burned their city, and carried home the beautiful Helen to be queen of Sparta again. The ancient Greeks never tired of telling their children the wonderful story of these brave deeds.

=264. Socrates, the Philosopher.= After ages had gone by the Greek nation still flourished, having improved in many ways, especially in art and in education.

[Sidenote: =One of the world's greatest men=]

One of the wisest of their great men was Socrates. Socrates was an ugly old man with a scolding wife. In spite of these drawbacks he stands out as one of the foremost teachers of the world. Socrates was truly a wise man, because he knew that the wisest man knows very little. He did not pretend to know things that he did not know.

[Sidenote: =The method Socrates used=]

Socrates taught, for the most part, by going among the people and asking them questions. Some people liked him, but some hated him because he asked questions that led persons on from one point to another until they saw their own mistakes.

His enemies grew in numbers and brought false charges that Socrates had not respected the gods of the city.

There came a day when he was called before the city's judges, who heard the charges against him. The judges decided that he must die by drinking a cup of poison. Some of the friends of Socrates found a way by which he could escape death. But the brave old Greek had faced death on the battlefield and was not afraid to die.

[Sidenote: =The death of Socrates=]

Socrates believed that the laws of the city should be obeyed even if they were unjust. He drank the fatal cup while telling his friends and followers of a life beyond the grave. It was a favorite doctrine of Socrates that men would live again after the body died.

We know what Socrates taught from the writings of his most famous pupil, Plato. These _Dialogues_ of Plato's, in the form of question and answer, are among the greatest books ever written.

[Sidenote: =A very learned man=]

=265. Aristotle, the Scientist of Ancient Times.= Aristotle was one of the later Greeks. He was celebrated for his learning. He was called a "Scientist," for he was not simply a philosopher as Socrates and Plato were.

[Sidenote: =Followed without question for ages=]

Aristotle was indeed a wonderful man. He studied about every subject known to the ancients and won honors in all subjects; people for centuries and centuries after Aristotle's time accepted what he said and did not try very hard to study further. They thought that the giant mind of Aristotle had found out all there was to know.

Aristotle studied animals and plants, putting them in different classes and finding out many of their characteristics. He also knew a great deal about music and his _Logic_ has been the great text book even down to modern times.

[Sidenote: =One of the earliest geographers=]

We have a special interest in Aristotle because in his studies in geography he taught that the world is round. From men who accepted Aristotle's teaching about the shape of the earth, Columbus, the discoverer of America, got his idea of sailing west to find eastern countries.

=266. The Father of Alexander the Great.= Macedon was a country just north of Greece. Its great king was Philip, father of Alexander the Great. Philip was a brave king and had good soldiers. He taught them to form in bodies sixteen ranks deep and armed them with lances or spears fourteen feet long. A body of soldiers so formed and armed was called a Macedonian phalanx. "When the Macedonians leveled their long spears and advanced with steady step they bore down" the ranks of the enemy.

[Sidenote: =Alexander seeks to imitate the old Greek heroes=]

With these soldiers Philip conquered Greece, but he ruled the Greeks kindly. He even employed one of them to give lessons to his young son. Aristotle was the teacher who opened to this young man all the learning of the Greeks. Alexander was a bright boy and learned quickly. Although not born a Greek, he admired their learning. He was fond of the blind poet Homer, and it was said could repeat his poems by heart.

Achilles was his favorite among the Greek heroes, and he finally made himself believe that Achilles was one of his forefathers. At any rate he resolved to imitate his hero and to conquer cities more splendid than Troy.

HOW THE GREEKS TAUGHT MEN TO BE FREE

=267. Self-Government among the Greeks.= The Greeks were not many in number, if we compare them with modern nations. But we admire them because they were free and had the most democratic government in the ancient world.

[Sidenote: =Greece a city-state=]

They lived in little cities located in the valleys shut in by hills or mountains. Around their cities they built strong walls to shut out dangerous enemies. There were some benefits growing out of living in small cities. The people could know each other. The men could come together quickly and easily to talk of things needed for the good of the city. Only a small part of the men and women in a modern city can get together. These Greeks could know the best men for office, for they were their own neighbors. Now but a few men who want office can be known to all the voters in a city, and still fewer who want to run for governor or for president can be known by all the voters of a state or country.

The most famous of the cities in ancient Greece were Athens and Sparta. Their history is well known to us because of the great deeds of their people. Another reason for remembering them is that the two cities were so very different, as we shall see.

[Sidenote: =The Greeks their own rulers=]

=268. The Government of the Cities.= At first, just as in the case of other nations, the Greeks had kings in all their cities. But unlike the other nations, the Greeks drove their kings out and made for themselves a kind of government called a republic. This was the best and wisest government for a people as intelligent as the Greeks. In a republic all the people, or a majority of them, take part in making and in carrying out the laws. This is the kind of government we have.

But while a republican government is the best, it is also the hardest to run. It demands that each one of its citizens shall be educated so that he may be able to vote wisely.

The Greeks had a hard time keeping their self-government. There were shrewd men among them who seized the power in the city and compelled the people to obey them. Such a man the Greeks called a "tyrant." A tyrant was either good or bad. He sometimes gave the people a better government than they had when they ruled themselves. But the Greeks were liberty-loving and liked to govern themselves even though their government was worse than a tyrant's government. So they generally drove out the tyrants and again set up a government under rulers of their own choosing.

=269. The Two Rival Cities, Athens and Sparta.= The people of Athens were the most democratic in all Greece. The Spartans, on the other hand, were the most soldier-like of the Greeks. The Athenians loved new things while the Spartans liked old ways best. The Athenians made Athens the most beautiful city in the Old World. The Spartans cared nothing for beautiful things. They loved only things that were useful.

All the citizens of Athens came together to make the laws. In the center of their city they met in their assembly, a semicircle of stone seats rising one above another. Here the men of Athens listened to their speakers. Each speaker placed a wreath upon his head before he began speaking.

[Sidenote: =The public life of the Athenians=]

Often there were exciting debates between great speakers called orators. They spoke eloquent words and sometimes stirred people deeply. The Athenians enjoyed these debates almost as much as they did their Greek plays.

[Sidenote: =Athenian orators=]

The people of Athens, because they made their laws after debating them in the assembly, placed emphasis on public speaking. All the citizens were taught how to speak in public and how to appear before the assembly. It was natural for the best orators to have the most influence. But the people were keen and quick to see the difference between orators who were interested only in winning applause and honor for themselves through their speeches and the ones who were true patriots and spoke for the good of the city.

Yet while the people of Athens trained their citizens to make the laws they saw to it that their young men were trained to be good soldiers. Training began with the school boy. There were two schools, one called the music school and the other the wrestling school.

[Sidenote: =The music school=]

In the music school the Greek boys did not study music alone, but learned to read and write and do simple sums in arithmetic. More than this, their teachers wanted them to learn the poems written by blind Homer, their wonderful old poet. They learned to play and sing. A stringed instrument called a lyre was the favorite among the Greeks.

[Sidenote: =The gymnasium=]

In the wrestling school the boys learned to run, to jump, to dance, and especially to throw the javelin. At fifteen they attended the gymnasium where they were taught the more difficult athletic games. This led up to the next great event in the young man's life, his preparation for becoming a citizen.

[Sidenote: =Soldier-citizens=]

This important event came at the age of eighteen. It began with a great ceremony. The young men came into the assembly before all the men of the city. Here they were given a spear and shield. With their hands raised they took an oath never to bring shame upon the city nor to desert a companion in arms. They pledged themselves to give over the city of Athens to their children greater than when they had found it.

After this ceremony was over, the young men marched away to be trained for two years more in the art of being soldiers. When they had reached their twentieth year, they returned to Athens to become citizens of the republic, to work for its good, and to enjoy the pleasures of that charming city.

[Sidenote: =Character of Pericles=]

=270. Pericles, the Wise Statesman.= Pericles lived in the "Golden Age of Athens." He was born nearly 500 years before Christ. He was trained in the same manner as any other boy in Athens. He became one of the first orators of Greece and his ability as a speaker gave him great power over his people. He became one of their leading officers. Pericles stood for the people and against those men of aristocratic ways who wanted the city ruled by the few.

Cimon was the leader of the aristocracy. The people of Athens voted to banish him. But after a time Pericles had him brought back to Athens. This shows how very kind-hearted Pericles was toward his great political enemy.

For thirty years Pericles was the most popular man in Athens. He ruled the people kindly and well during this time.

It was Pericles who made Athens the City Beautiful. When you are older you may read all about the many wonderful buildings and monuments he erected.

The rule of Pericles had one bad result: He was so popular and had been the great man in the government so long that when he passed away there was no one who could take his place. The time in which he lived is often called the "Age of Pericles." After his death history handed his high ideas on to Rome and the rest of the world. No doubt these ideas influenced the great men of Rome.

SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION

[Sidenote: =The Greeks of Asia Minor=]

=271. The Old Wars of the Greeks.= The once greatest enemies of the Greeks were the Persians, living in western Asia. The Persians conquered Asia Minor. Here on its coast the Greeks had planted many cities, and they naturally sent ships and soldiers to aid their kinsmen.

[Sidenote: =The battle of Marathon=]

The king of the Persians, Darius by name, whom we read about in the Bible, sailed with a great army across the sea to Greece. One hundred thousand Persians met ten thousand Greeks on the battlefield of Marathon. The Greeks won.

The old folks and children among the Greeks waited for the news with breathless anxiety. The minutes grew into hours. At last they saw a runner coming. He was covered with dust. He had been on the battlefield and was running to tell the waiting people of the great victory. He dropped dead as he called out, "Victory!" He had run twenty-four miles!

Both Europe and America have celebrated the victory at Marathon by naming one of their races in the great Olympic contest the Marathon race.

[Sidenote: =Xerxes' forces=]

Again, a new king, Xerxes, who reigned over Persia, decided to overthrow Greece. He gathered a vast host from forty-six tributary states. He also gathered a fleet greater than any Greece had.

The city of Sparta gave three hundred brave soldiers. Their leader was Leonidas. The Persian army had to march along the narrow pass of Thermopylae that ran between high mountains and the sea. Here stood the brave Spartans. For two days Leonidas held the pass. Through a mountain road the Persians gained the rear of the Spartan army. But the Spartans did not retreat. Every Spartan fell fighting for his country. A noble example!

[Sidenote: =The battle of Salamis=]

The Greek warships met the Persians in the Bay of Salamis and overthrew them completely. Xerxes took his army and hastened back to Persia. Asia might be ruled by tyrants but the Greeks were bound to be free.

=272. How Alexander Spread Greek Ideas.= But these wonderful deeds were not all the Greeks were to do. We have seen Alexander come to the head of the Greek Empire. He had a wonderful army and resolved to teach the Persians a lesson or two as well as to spread Greek ideas.

[Sidenote: =The march of the Greeks=]

Alexander's army was not large, but it was the best trained in the world. Think of the Macedonian phalanx! All the cities of Persia fell into his hands. Before he was thirty years old, southwestern Asia and Egypt recognized his rule. Alexandria, situated at the mouth of the Nile River, was founded by him. It became a center of Greek ideas and boasted the largest library in the Old World.